Thursday, December 27, 2012
The Home Test Lab - A Quick Guide to Homemade Science
If you are planning on doing experiments in your private time, you should have a home test lab. While this may seem odd to many people, if you are passionate about science then you will find all sorts of uses for one. There is no end to the experiments you can do at home. Whether science is your hobby or you need a lab for tutoring in, there are some things you need to take into consideration before you launch into setting it up.
One of the first things is the cost of setting the lab up and the budget you have to work with. You will need tables, burners, and lots of containers such as glass beakers. While this doesn't have to be very expensive, it will require some start up capitol. If your funds are limited, prioritize what you need and buy your equipment in batches instead of all at once.
Something else to take into consideration is where you are going to set up your home test lab. This also doesn't have to be fancy, but it does need to be suited to your needs. You shouldn't set it up somewhere that is going to be in the way of others, such as in a main bathroom. It should also be far enough from living areas that if you create fumes they won't bother anyone.
If you can get electricity and running water to the area, this is prime. But you don't have to have these in order to see success with your home lab. Just be sure that you have a chemical sink that drains into a jug so you can properly dispose of used chemicals. Many people use attics, cellars and basements, spare bathrooms, and sheds for their labs. The important thing is that the space is roomy enough for you and well ventilated.
Whatever space you choose, make sure it has room for at least one decent sized table. This way you have somewhere to set up burners and holding racks. You may want to think about getting a metal or wood table since these are unlikely to melt, and chemicals are less likely to erode them.
Also make sure you can put up some large, study shelves. This way your table doesn't have to be covered in glass beakers, burners, chemical containers, or anything else that you aren't using right then. There should be a shelf for your clean containers, another shelf to organize your materials on, and potentially another shelf for items that need to be washed.
Once you know you have a suitable space for working in, you can start buying your supplies. Get the right burner for your setting, whether that be gas or electric. There are also alcohol burners you can get if you don't have electricity or gas available to you. Also get plenty of glass beakers, test tubes, and stirring sticks. Glass is recommended since it won't hold onto chemicals like plastic and won't erode. Finally, make sure you have some cooling plates to set your projects on.
By choosing the right space and buying quality supplies, you will be able to set yourself up with a great home test lab that you will be able to enjoy for years. Over time you will also figure out what you need to add to make your lab perfect.
NovaTech International provides more information on Glass Beakers and other lab equipment.
Test Lab in a Box
Test labs: we know that we need them. But getting one off the ground can seem an insurmountable task! So to help you roll up your sleeves and get started, here is a summary of how we set up test labs for our customers, plus some practical ideas to help you get the most out of your test lab after it is up and running!
Hardware: In previous years, getting approval to set up a test environment was tough due to the number of devices and the class of hardware that were needed. As hardware has improved and virtualization technology has moved forward, we can now build a test lab using a single workstation!
When I set up a test lab for customers who are involved with developing application objects, both traditional and virtual, I recommend that, if possible, they dedicate a machine to the task. For customers who are testing servers, new applications, or a new operating system, setting up virtual machines on their personal workstations is a great option (particularly if they have a laptop). They can then work on the testing environment whenever they have time. Either way, here are some recommendations:
* Make sure the hardware is relatively new. While it is tempting to re-purpose an older machine, you will quickly become frustrated if you don't have enough RAM or disk space.
* Put as much RAM possible into the machine. Most testing can be done on machines with 4G of RAM. However, keep in mind that for testing products like ZCM, you may need even more. My dedicated test machine has 8G of RAM, a 1TB hard drive, and runs Windows XP 64 bit.
* Purchase an inexpensive external drive. This is great for moving, sharing, and storing your virtual machine library. You can also use it for backup. Just be sure that you do a backup of this environment periodically, for obvious reasons!
Software: There are lots of free products out there to use when creating virtual machines. Of course, some are better than others. While it is tempting to use free products, you may quickly become frustrated with their limitations. Paid-for-products have features like unlimited snapshots and cloning. Be sure to check the software licensing particulars when creating clones to be sure that you are in compliance.
Virtual Machine Use: Here are just a few of the many ways you can use your virtual test lab!
* Application Development: First, create a Windows Application Development virtual machine that just contains the base OS with patches and any application development tools needed, and take a snapshot. Then, for each application you develop, return to the original snapshot, develop the app and take a new snapshot. This creates a library of snapshots that you can return to when patching or adjusting settings for a given app.
* Application Testing: You can also create a second VM with just the base OS, patches, antivirus, Novell client, ZEN agent, etc., for testing the applications. Be sure to take a base snapshot so that you can return to it after each test. (You don't need to keep a snapshot of the app tests: just the base.) Whether you are developing virtualized applications or MSIs with AdminStudio, this environment will serve you well.
* Pre-migration Testing: Set up one or multiple servers to mimic a production environment. Again, take a snapshot prior to making any changes. Then test the migration you are planning, such as upgrading GroupWise, migrating to OES Linux, etc. By keeping a library of base virtual machines, the sky is the limit on the types of testing you can do.
* Teaching, Training, and Demos: Keep a library of virtual machines on an external drive. This gives you a great way to quickly set up for classes or provide a product demo for your staff or end-users. For example, you can do a lunch and learn to show your user community GroupWise tips and tricks, get your techs up to speed on ZCM, or present new software to management to show off its capabilities.
Virtualization software has become a must-have tool in our consulting practice. Hopefully the ideas presented above will give you just the encouragement you needed to get started!
Donna Moyer is Principal/Senior Network Consultant of Uptime NetManagement, Inc. - http://www.uptimenmi.com/. Uptime is a Novell Gold Solutions partner providing technology solutions, customized training, and consulting services. If you are interested in finding out exactly what Novell can do for your business, or are seeking to maximize the benefits from your current Novell systems, call us today at 610-621-1244!
DNA Testing Labs - Get Your Paternity Test Online
DNA testing is now available from labs which offer their services online.
Most people who use these labs are interested in paternity - to confirm for their own satisfaction, or for legal purposes, who is the father of a particular child.
How does this work? The process is now very simple and very quick. First, you would request a testing kit from an online DNA service. There are two kinds of kits to choose from. One is to be used for your own peace of mind in confirming the father of the child; the other is for use in child custody or child support cases, or for use as evidence in a court of law.
When the test kit arrives, take a swab from the inside cheek of the child. Take another swab from the inside cheek of the alleged father.
Then you simply send the two samples back to the lab.
In 3-5 days you have your results by phone, mail and email.
What about the accuracy of the results? Accredited testing labs will be able to guarantee that results are 100% accurate for negative tests (proving that the alleged father is not the actual father) and 99% accurate for positive tests (the alleged father is the actual father). For your own safety, you should ensure that the service you use is ISO accredited.
What about discreet paternity testing? Some mothers or possible fathers may wish a test to be done without anyone knowing about it except themselves. Some online services also offer services which are called 'discreet' testing. In this case, cheek swabs are not used, but you send items from which DNA can be extracted.
These items could be nail clippings, dried blood, chewed gum, cigarette butts, underwear, a sweaty t-shirt or even ear wax.
Another kind of paternity test is the prenatal DNA test. This will confirm the paternity of the child before it is even born. This involves testing cells which are taking from the amniotic fluid (and has to be done by a medical professional). Testing has to be done between week 10 and week 21 of the pregnancy.
DNA paternity testing can also be done to establish legal residency and citizenship, and for visa applications. The top services online work with the Immigration and Naturalization Service and with you to provide the legal proof of paternity which is required.
If you want to read the full details about all of these paternity tests, and where to find a reliable and accredited DNA testing lab, check our dedicated page at www.kintraw.com/dna-testing-labs.htm.
Scott Kintraw writes about all the ways the Internet can make your life easier.
The Best Pharmaceutical Testing Labs
Pharmaceutical testing labs make their importance known in every pill someone swallows, every powder a person mixes in water to combat their throbbing headache, and each injection of insulin a diabetic trusts to regulate their blood sugar. The public puts their faith in pharmaceutical testing labs to screen the harmful from the safe, and expects that every medicinal treatment has been carefully monitored to eliminate potential hazards. Simply put, pharmaceutical testing labs make it possible for the public to medicate without fear. The best of the best offer a full-scale catalogue of services. Some of these include:
- Raw material testing - Before the pharmaceutical is formulated, it is helpful to test the raw materials to ensure that each one is of high quality. These raw materials work in synergy with each other to make a pharmaceutical that can alleviate a symptom or symptoms, and by making sure each one is of the best quality possible, the highest results can be expected from the finished product.
- Content uniformity - Just as with any recipe, pharmaceutical ingredients are required in different quantities in order to achieve a uniform final product. Content uniformity testing ensures that the balance of these quantities remains the same, every time. This ensures a consistent product.
- Disintegration and dissolution - Very important especially in the realm of oral medications, disintegrations and dissolution play a huge part in determining how quickly medicine is absorbed by the human body. To learn timeframes of disintegration and dissolution, pharmaceutical makers contract with pharmaceutical testing labs to learn how quickly their medications will disintegrate and dissolve.
- Impurity characterization - If any impurities are suspected, they need to be identified and their health risks considered.
- Method validation - The method in which the pharmaceutical is made must be proven to be consistent and effective. If any tweaks need to be made, they must be identified and fixed before consistent approval can be expected.
- Testing of final product - Perhaps the most important step of the testing process is the testing of the final product, which results in the proverbial thumbs-up or thumbs-down. The bet pharmaceutical testing labs understand the necessity of looking at the product as a whole before it is released into the marketplace.
The best pharmaceutical labs look at each element of a pharmaceutical. With every medication that delivers upon its promise of pain relief or treatment, pharmaceutical labs continue their reign as important keepers of the public's health treatment.
The author of this article has expertise in pharmaceutical testing labs. The articles on chemical testing labs reveals the author's knowledge on the same.
What Takes Place at Device Test Labs
Device testing involves ensuring the quality and/or interoperability of a product. In order for devices to achieve certification from a company or standards organization, the device must pass compliance tests, which ensure it will work with other certified products. Nearly all companies require conforming one's product to stated specifications and protocols to ensure compatibility with products from other manufacturers. Test procedures for ensuring compatibility are developed in partnership with the industry leaders and standards organizations which guide enabling technology. Examples of those standards organizations range from Bluetooth technology to USB to Wi-Fi technologies.
Standards Compliance
Most compliance testing is the product of standards organizations that create test specifications and logo certification guidelines to ensure accuracy and fairness for all product developers. Standards organizations are of the utmost importance throughout the product certification process. Standards compliance groups consist of at least two individuals, companies or organizations coming together to advance a technology.
Common standards compliance tests include USB testing, PCI testing, SATA testing and Wi-Fi testing. Having the device tested at a third-part test lab offers an unbiased, accurate and private testing solution. Testing facilities are driven by the interest of member companies, and as the technologies progress, so do the tests that are offered.
Testing Labs
Device test labs offer test and measurement and can benefit developers in various product life cycle stages. Using a third party test lab offers neutrality and often offers cutting-edge testing methods. A benefit of using a test lab is that a trending problem can be observed and addressed. Testing labs provide valuable feedback to the developers creating the products and the consortia creating the standards. It is generally cost effective to work with a test lab, as developing an in-house test lab requires costly equipment that requires frequent updating and dedicated staff proficient in device testing.
Labs can typically test for interoperability and conformance. Interoperability and conformance are often used interchangeably; however, there is a slight difference between the two terms. Interoperability illustrates that current devices can work together while conformance adds confidence that future devices will also work.
Look beyond the general scope of a test lab's capabilities and consider discussing customized solutions to meet company or organization needs. As with any company offering a service, a test facility is only as strong as its project and engineering team. Be sure to work with specifically trained test engineers who have knowledge of your technology to attain quality performance and satisfaction.
The Device Testing Process
During the product development stage, having access to the most affordable and competitive testing fixtures will improve work efficiency for product development. For example, for the PCI Express test, there are specific device test tools designed for PCI testing. These types of testing tools are user friendly and can be as simple as plugging the PCI card directly into the motherboard for testing.
In the initial stage of testing, the client works with the test lab to agree on testing methods, timing and project scope. Client communications should be open and frequent, and all results, configurations and bugs should be recorded confidentially. Testing can be conducted for both device hardware and software.
Debugging
In early stages of product development, it is necessary to find and fix defects in the device to allow it to perform as it should. Debugging can be a complex process in systems with components that are highly reliant on each other. Combating one bug can lead to bugs emerging elsewhere. Consulting with an engineer with debugging skills is valuable to the product developer.
Debuggers are testing tools that enable the test lab to monitor the execution of a program, stop-it, re-start it, change memory values and in some cases, go backward in time. To debug electronic hardware such as computer hardware, low-level software and firmware, automated testing tools like oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, in-circuit emulators (ICEs), generators and programmable temperature and humidity chambers are used.
Test Cycle Completion
Upon completion of the test cycle, the developer should expect a comprehensive summary report. Before information is captured in a database, it should be reviewed and approved by the testing lead and/or project manager under strict security control.
Once a device reaches all benchmarks and passes all checkpoints, certification can be established. Whether testing a desktop computer, notebook, multi-media device, wireless device, storage product, peripheral or software application, working with a trusted third party test lab throughout product development ensures quality testing and moves the product along through the development cycle.
Logo Programs
Adding a certified logo to a product provides consumers with confidence that the product will function as it should. A product can be perceived as more valuable when it bears a logo, as testing is typically required for logo use. New technologies require educating the industry leaders, retailers and consumers about the value of the logo.
~Ben Anton, 2009
Ben Anton is a frequent writer for Allion Test Labs.
Testing tools for USB PCI, SATA, HDMI and more are available from Allion Test Labs, a television and device test lab located in the U.S. and around the world.
Wednesday, August 8, 2012
Security Alarm System Motion Detectors
Passive Infrared Motion Detectors- These detectors are also known as PIR detectors. The technology they utilize is "passive infrared". The device is mounted on a wall or in the corner of a room. It sends invisible fingers out into the covered area in several layers. The top layer goes the furthest and averages about 60 feet straight ahead and 35 feet on the sides.
The center layer of beams spreads the area about mid way and the bottom layer sweeps the room closest to the detector. These beams individually measure the infrared temperature of what ever they land on and look for a clash of temperature against that point. For example if a beam lands on your couch and knows what temperature it is, when you walk in front of the couch your temperature is different and causes a violation. You would be hard pressed to match the temperature of everything in your home as you walk about and that makes motion detectors hard to compromise.
Passive motion detectors have a microchip in them that will adjust the device for slow and methodical temperature changes. This way as your room warms up and cools down during an armed alarm period, you will not get a false alarm.
Some motion detectors are designed to be mounted in the ceiling and spread a 360-degree cone downward. Some are recessed to replicate an electric outlet and various other combinations are available for the James Bond like clients. Most often the device is an aesthetically pleasing small device that is mounted 5-7 feet high in the corner of a room.
Passive infrared motion detectors will not see through walls or windows as they will consider touching one of them as their final destination and begin calculating the temperature. The beams project forward only and will not bend around corners. If your device is placed where a beam can go into an area with an opened door, it will protect the interior of that area as well. Once the door is closed the beam will terminate on that door.
Motion detectors are not going to protect every square inch of your home or business unless you invest in many of them to accomplish that. Instead you should intelligently place them as an interior trap in an area or areas most likely to be violated by the creep or creeps that want to take your belongings or worst off violate you personally. Usually one placed properly on the main floor and one on the lower level if you have one, will serve as good traps. Stairways are often a good thing to consider when placing the device, due to the fact that you will prevent unauthorized passage from one floor to the next.
(HOT TIP!)
An alarm installer should always place a device where it will best serve the user and achieve the most coverage. Many an installer has elected to forgo this concept so that they can install the device in an area that is easier to get to with the wires. Insist on discussing all placement options with your installer before they place each motion detector. You can bet that your interests will be prioritized when they see your involvement in the decision process.
Dual Technology PIR- Dual means two technologies are used in one device. Both technologies must be violated to cause an alarm. These devices are used in harsh environments such as a garage or sun- room. The first technology is passive infrared and works as explained above. The second technology is most often Doppler and looks for the invisible movement of air. If you walk into a room the air has to move as your body mass pushes it along. The reason you would want a dual technology device is clear when you apply common sense to the desired area of protection. For example let's say you pull your car in to a cool garage, go in the house and turn the alarm on for the night. Your motion detector that you put in your garage will see a dramatic temperature change as the heat from your engine radiates into the cool air. If you had a duel technology motion detector it would not see the air moving because your car is still, so it will refuse to go into an alarm condition.
Pet Immune Motion detector- This is a wonderful advancement in motion detection that may work for you if your pet free- roams your house while you are away and have your motion detectors on. Before the introduction of this technology the pet owner had to either confine their pets from the protected area or bypass the motion detector rendering it useless unless the pet was out of the home with them. The technology is the same as the regular passive infrared detectors. On the pet immune version there are two sets of beams that are offset from each other. Your pet must hit two pre- assigned beams simultaneously in order to violate the detector. Pets under a certain amount of weight (up to 85 pounds) are not long enough to hit both beams so it does not see them. A human torso is designed much differently as per a weight to length ratio causing them to violate either a horizontal or vertical pair of beams, depending on their favorite burglarizing posture.
On the pet immune detectors the middle and lower span of beams are pet immune but the top layer is not, due to the distance of separation between the farthest-reaching beams. Care must be taken on the placement of these devices restricting the high beams from stairways and high ledges your cat may get up on. (6-7 feet high) A good technician will mask only the beams that hit these trouble spots expanding your coverage options.
Remember that even though your device is technically restricted for use by weight of your pet, two or more small animals will have an opportunity to hit the two proper beams while playing with each other. I do not recommend that you use these devices with two or more pets no matter how small they are, unless one of them is rarely moving about. Also one free flying bird will look like a dinosaur entered the room if it flies close to the detector. (They have yet to design the "Dinosaur Immune Detector")
If your pets do not fall into the allowances for using a pet immune motion detector then you should consider other options for creating interior traps. The well- designed system protects your perimeter as well as possible and creates interior traps in case the perimeter is circumvented.
Matthew Francis Alarms@expertsknow.com
22 year veteran of the alarm industry
Installer, salesman, licensed alarm company owner, monitoring station designer, promotions and marketing director with one of the worlds largest security dealers. He now works as a consumer advocate, teaching consumers how to buy or get systems for free (without being taken). He is committed to being unbiased. His web site is http://www.expertsknow.com
Motion Detectors For Home Security
In these troubled economic times, crime is on the increase. Especially, it seems, home invasions. Criminals of all stripes, from the cagey professionals to the confused addicts, are trying their luck against suburban castles for a chance at great rewards. As such, there is much to gain in upgrading your home security with a few extras. You can set up flood lights, tall fences, and alarm systems. You can get dogs, or security bars on your doors and windows. There are any number of options when it comes to home security.
Combinations are Good
Lights, fences and alarms are all well and good on their own. Combinations are even better. But, for the ultimate home security experience, consider adding motion detectors to your repertoire. Why? Well, if used in conjunction with other security measures, motion detectors can keep would-be thieves from even getting close to your valuables. Too, they're a quiet form of security device, and perfect for someone looking to keep their home security surveillance systems unobtrusive.
Sense Motion
Motion detectors work on a simple principle - they sense motion. They are devices that contain mechanisms which quantify motions and can be easily integrated with other devices. There are several basic types. The passive infrared motion detectors, which can sense body heat and emit no energy. Then there are ultrasonic units, which emit pulses and measure the reflections off of a moving target. And, of course, there are the detectors that send out microwave pulses and measure the reflections. Each of these work on the same basic principle...they 'see' motion and send a signal to an alarm system, alerting you of the presence of potential intruder. These are all available as wireless motion detectors which make them continue to operate even if there is a power failure either system-wide or deliberate.
Trigger Floodlights
Now, imagine a motion detector used to trigger a set of flood lights. The thief trips the detector and the floodlights snap on, blinding the thief and illuminating his shape. Startled, he decides against continuing his efforts to relieve you of your valuables. Or, as is more common, you could integrate your motion detector with an alarm or siren system. This latter set-up can quickly become a pain, however, especially if your motion detectors are too sensitive. You can even use them in conjunction with silent alarms, that is calling a security service.
Downsides
Speaking of which, there are downsides to using motion detectors, as with any security devices. If they are set too sensitive, they can activate your secondary security systems on account of squirrels, leaves caught in the wind and even insects. Set too low, and they'll miss a light-footed thief. Motion detectors should only be used if you are serious about home security, as they can cause just as many problems as they can prevent.
Fake Them Out
Install a fake version of a well-known motion detector in a visible location. any would be burglar will see this and wonder is it real, or maybe he will just take it as a working detector. A fake motion detector is cheap and even though it is a bluff, probably will work to keep those intent on break in in, deciding to move on to an easier mark.
Webcam
Combining a camera, some software, and a motion detector together to make a webcam motion detector will allow you to view the scene from a remote location on your laptop whenever someone trips the detector. Welcome to the twenty-first century.
But, as far as home security goes, installing motion detectors is a good idea. Connected to lights or alarms (silent or otherwise), they can give your home that extra bit of security you've been looking for. Simply make sure that they're set properly, and motion detectors can serve as an essential part of any home security system.
Mac Abley is a Home Security enthusiast. Visit All About Home Security for tips about home security surveillance [http://www.allabouthomesecurity.com/InstallH.xhtml] and other resources you can use right now to setup your own rock-solid home security system.
Motion Detectors Come in a Wide Variety of Forms to Suit Your Personal Safety Needs
Motion Detectors are standard pieces of any home security system. Useful to both residential and commercial sites, motion detectors use infrared sensors, known as IR channels, to detect movement within a certain range of a given environment. Whether your concern is to protect your home or office indoors or outdoors, motion detectors come in a wide variety of forms to suit your personal safety needs.
Indoor Infrared Motion Detectors. These use infrared or passive infrared (PIR) sensors to alert you to particular levels of heat and/or movement in a particular room or space. PIR sensors have specific limits on sensing to avoid alerting you to movements set off by small animals. Coverage for all types ranges from 18'x40' to 50'x50' and all sizes in between. When activated, indoor infrared motion detectors will alert the police or the homeowner, depending upon the system you choose.
Ceiling-Mounted Motion Detectors. Some are designed for a ceiling mounting, which allows for 360° coverage. They are especially suited to rooms wherein sensing from a corner-mounted detector could be blocked by shelving or storage units. Activation works in the same way as it does with other indoor motion detectors; the IR channel or PIR sensor alerts you or your local police when it encounters a particular range of heat and movement.
Pet Immune Motion Detectors. If you own a pet or pets and want to stop them from triggering a false alarm with your motion detectors, there is an array of pet immune products that will keep your home safe without risking a false alarm. Pet immune motion detectors use PIR in most cases to avoid being triggered by a small animal. Smaller changes in temperature will not register in the same zone as heat produced by humans, and will not trigger motion detectors to alert you of intrusion.
Wireless Motion Detectors. For homeowners interested in the latest technology in detection, wireless detectors are "it." Wireless motion detectors are typically more expensive than conventional motion detectors, but their advanced yet simple features make them worth a little extra money to many homeowners. Battery-operated and customizable, wireless motion detectors use the same infrared sensing technology and are also available in pet immune forms.
Outdoor Motion Detectors. These devices are popular for both residential and commercial protection. Outdoor motion detectors trigger lights to come on when a person or vehicle is within a certain range (usually 40-50 feet) of your home or office. This system not only deters potential intruders, but also makes its owners feel safer when walking from the car to home or office at night.
Spy Motion Detectors. For all the 007-wannabes out there and the inner spy in all of us, there are several styles of spy detectors to choose for your residence or commercial site. Spy detectors can serve several functions; in addition to sensing motion through stealth PIR detection, they can also alert your phone or pager, allow you to use your own voice to ward off intruders, or record intrusions with a camera that allows you to view captured images through your TV/VCR system. Most of these detectors have multiple mounting capabilities, including wall, ceiling, or behind a wall. Spy detectors are often used in museums to protect visitors or intruders from stealing art objects. You can use the same system, however, in your own home or office.
Announcement Motion Detectors. When you want to know who's pulling into the driveway, knocking at the door, or milling around your commercial site, you need one of these. Announcement motion detectors alert you, via tone or recorded language message, to who is near your home or office. Most function within a 2 mile radius, and are available in wireless or handheld forms as well. Some announcement detectors allow you to speak through to the base system and address the person or persons detected; others alert you to such a presence through a particular tone sound or message.
They are essential to any security system, within or without your home or office. Nearly all of them are RFI (radio frequency interference) immune, and use progressive PIR technology to give you tight security without triggering false alarms.
Indoor motion detectors are highly affordable, and range from $18-95. Outdoor motion detectors, at $80-150, are reasonably priced for their sensing capabilities. Wireless detectors are in a similar price range to the outdoor variety, at $70-150. Spy motion detectors, the most advanced equipment you can fine, typically range from $45-225.
Whatever your desired level of residential or commercial security, there is a broad miscellany of motion detectors to choose from, within a diverse range of prices. You are certain to find exactly what you need to keep your site safe and secure from unwanted intrusion.
Where you can find out more about Home Security and articles on Security News
Tuesday, May 29, 2012
Is Induction Charging the Future of FMCG Packaging?
Retail marketing is going to be taking a huge leap forward if new technology recently showcased becomes part of the consumer shopping experience in the next few years.
A company called Fulton Innovation have developed technology that uses induction power to create light up packaging for food packaging, demonstrating this on cereal packets. The products were showcased at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas and wowed spectators. The retail marketing world is extremely excited by this jump forward in technology as it presents the opportunity to not only create dazzling, eye-catching displays, but also to use the induction technology to give battery-free demonstrations.
Induction technology can power toys to play on their own as displays, an example was shown with a pack of batteries charging themselves on an induction shelf, ready to be bought and used immediately. What's outstanding is the way that this technology can be used within food packaging. A packet of soup which has a heating coil built in is able to cook the soup once placed on an induction shelf, perfectly and to the manufacturers recommendations.
Fulton Innovation are confident that this technology is not just a gimmick and that it will move forward packaging design. This is definitely something that can push forward shop display units and it's only a matter of time before you see it being used by some of the most forward-thinking consumer brands. The technology has a lot of potential as well; information can be embedded in the products printed circuit. This can then be downloaded by consumers to get the freshness date and nutritional information. When used online this information can supply info about inventory ingredients and the even produce recipe suggestions. As well as being of benefit to the consumer, stores can also benefit from this new technology. Product quantities can be tracked, expiration dates monitored and new stock automatically ordered when supplies are low.
Although still in its infancy there is a huge amount of potential for this kind of technology. It runs on 80% efficiency and at the moment does not look like it will be outside of the big brand's price range. But the first brands that do jump onto this new technology for packaging and point of purchase displays are sure to get extra sales and also lots of press just on the novelty factor alone. It's going to be an interesting one to watch and the consumer reaction will show just how successful this could prove to be.
About us: The SPS Group are a group of companies specialising in retail marketing. We design and manufacture complete and effective point of purchase displays for brands and retailers such as shop display units, resulting in more products sold by our customers.
Sunday, May 13, 2012
Building Simple Electronic Projects Makes Learning Basic Electronic Theory and Skills Fun
There are two schools of thought when it comes to teaching electronics. The first school of thought is that it is important to develop a solid foundation in basic electronic theory before tackling any hands-on activities. The other school favors the hands-on approach that combines learning theory while conducting experiments and while building practical projects. Personally, I favor the latter approach and I have incorporated it in all the Adult Ed classes that I have taught over the years. Building simple electronics projects allows the student to see electronic theory in action, and it allows them to develop essential skills like soldering, disordering, working with pc (printed circuit) boards, etc.
Electronics is a hobby that the whole family can enjoy. Nevertheless, before tackling your dream project, you need to learn some basic theory, develop some practical skills, and build up your electronics workshop. One of the first skills you will need to learn is how to properly solder and unsolder electronic components because components and pc boards can be damaged if it is not done properly. Using excessive amounts of heat can loosen the copper traces on a pc board and destroy components like diodes and transistors. The good news is that soldering is an easy skill to master. Carl's AK-100 Learn to Solder Kit is one of those simple electronics projects that not only teach you how to solder, it teaches you another essential skill, how to read color codes, while building a working electronic siren. This kit also provides you with all the tools and supplies you will need to handle any basic soldering job that you will encounter in assembling any electronic kit. The good news is that it will cost you less than $20 and applicable S & H costs.
After you have mastered the art of soldering and after having added a professional grade 30-watt soldering iron and a pair of diagonal pliers to your tool collection, you are ready to tackle another project. Why not surprise your lady with a custom-built music box for Christmas. Well you can buy the box and then install the electronic playback unit that you have built from a kit. Carl's Music Box kit is another of those simple electronics projects that allows you to practice the skills that you have already learned while developing new skills and mastering new theory. You can select any one of a dozen romantic tunes for it to play when your loved one opens the box or you can set it to cycle through all twelve tunes. Again, you can build this kit for less than $20, of course that does not include the cost of the jewelry box that you install it in.
The fun has just begun. Enjoy your newfound hobby of building simple electronics projects. Carl's is just one o many online sources for electronic kits, tools, and supplies. A simple Google search will turn up hundreds.
Wendy Pan is an accomplished niche website developer and author.
To learn more about simple electronics projects [http://electronickitsforamateurs.info/building-simple-electronic-projects-makes-learning-basic-electronic-theory-and-skills-fun], please visit Electronic Kits for Amateurs [http://electronickitsforamateurs.info] for current articles and discussions.
Saturday, May 5, 2012
Electronic Music History and Today's Best Modern Proponents!
Electronic music history pre-dates the rock and roll era by decades. Most of us were not even on this planet when it began its often obscure, under-appreciated and misunderstood development. Today, this 'other worldly' body of sound which began close to a century ago, may no longer appear strange and unique as new generations have accepted much of it as mainstream, but it's had a bumpy road and, in finding mass audience acceptance, a slow one.
Many musicians - the modern proponents of electronic music - developed a passion for analogue synthesizers in the late 1970's and early 1980's with signature songs like Gary Numan's breakthrough, 'Are Friends Electric?'. It was in this era that these devices became smaller, more accessible, more user friendly and more affordable for many of us. In this article I will attempt to trace this history in easily digestible chapters and offer examples of today's best modern proponents.
To my mind, this was the beginning of a new epoch. To create electronic music, it was no longer necessary to have access to a roomful of technology in a studio or live. Hitherto, this was solely the domain of artists the likes of Kraftwerk, whose arsenal of electronic instruments and custom built gadgetry the rest of us could only have dreamed of, even if we could understand the logistics of their functioning. Having said this, at the time I was growing up in the 60's & 70's, I nevertheless had little knowledge of the complexity of work that had set a standard in previous decades to arrive at this point.
The history of electronic music owes much to Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-2007). Stockhausen was a German Avante Garde composer and a pioneering figurehead in electronic music from the 1950's onwards, influencing a movement that would eventually have a powerful impact upon names such as Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Brain Eno, Cabaret Voltaire, Depeche Mode, not to mention the experimental work of the Beatles' and others in the 1960's. His face is seen on the cover of "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", the Beatles' 1967 master Opus. Let's start, however, by traveling a little further back in time.
The Turn of the 20th Century
Time stood still for this stargazer when I originally discovered that the first documented, exclusively electronic, concerts were not in the 1970's or 1980's but in the 1920's!
The first purely electronic instrument, the Theremin, which is played without touch, was invented by Russian scientist and cellist, Lev Termen (1896-1993), circa 1919.
In 1924, the Theremin made its concert debut with the Leningrad Philharmonic. Interest generated by the theremin drew audiences to concerts staged across Europe and Britain. In 1930, the prestigious Carnegie Hall in New York, experienced a performance of classical music using nothing but a series of ten theremins. Watching a number of skilled musicians playing this eerie sounding instrument by waving their hands around its antennae must have been so exhilarating, surreal and alien for a pre-tech audience!
For those interested, check out the recordings of Theremin virtuoso Clara Rockmore (1911-1998). Lithuanian born Rockmore (Reisenberg) worked with its inventor in New York to perfect the instrument during its early years and became its most acclaimed, brilliant and recognized performer and representative throughout her life.
In retrospect Clara, was the first celebrated 'star' of genuine electronic music. You are unlikely to find more eerie, yet beautiful performances of classical music on the Theremin. She's definitely a favorite of mine!
Electronic Music in Sci-Fi, Cinema and Television
Unfortunately, and due mainly to difficulty in skill mastering, the Theremin's future as a musical instrument was short lived. Eventually, it found a niche in 1950's Sci-Fi films. The 1951 cinema classic "The Day the Earth Stood Still", with a soundtrack by influential American film music composer Bernard Hermann (known for Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho", etc.), is rich with an 'extraterrestrial' score using two Theremins and other electronic devices melded with acoustic instrumentation.
Using the vacuum-tube oscillator technology of the Theremin, French cellist and radio telegraphist, Maurice Martenot (1898-1980), began developing the Ondes Martenot (in French, known as the Martenot Wave) in 1928.
Employing a standard and familiar keyboard which could be more easily mastered by a musician, Martenot's instrument succeeded where the Theremin failed in being user-friendly. In fact, it became the first successful electronic instrument to be used by composers and orchestras of its period until the present day.
It is featured on the theme to the original 1960's TV series "Star Trek", and can be heard on contemporary recordings by the likes of Radiohead and Brian Ferry.
The expressive multi-timbral Ondes Martenot, although monophonic, is the closest instrument of its generation I have heard which approaches the sound of modern synthesis.
"Forbidden Planet", released in 1956, was the first major commercial studio film to feature an exclusively electronic soundtrack... aside from introducing Robbie the Robot and the stunning Anne Francis! The ground-breaking score was produced by husband and wife team Louis and Bebe Barron who, in the late 1940's, established the first privately owned recording studio in the USA recording electronic experimental artists such as the iconic John Cage (whose own Avante Garde work challenged the definition of music itself!).
The Barrons are generally credited for having widening the application of electronic music in cinema. A soldering iron in one hand, Louis built circuitry which he manipulated to create a plethora of bizarre, 'unearthly' effects and motifs for the movie. Once performed, these sounds could not be replicated as the circuit would purposely overload, smoke and burn out to produce the desired sound result.
Consequently, they were all recorded to tape and Bebe sifted through hours of reels edited what was deemed usable, then re-manipulated these with delay and reverberation and creatively dubbed the end product using multiple tape decks.
In addition to this laborious work method, I feel compelled to include that which is, arguably, the most enduring and influential electronic Television signature ever: the theme to the long running 1963 British Sci-Fi adventure series, "Dr. Who". It was the first time a Television series featured a solely electronic theme. The theme to "Dr. Who" was created at the legendary BBC Radiophonic Workshop using tape loops and test oscillators to run through effects, record these to tape, then were re-manipulated and edited by another Electro pioneer, Delia Derbyshire, interpreting the composition of Ron Grainer.
As you can see, electronic music's prevalent usage in vintage Sci-Fi was the principle source of the general public's perception of this music as being 'other worldly' and 'alien-bizarre sounding'. This remained the case till at least 1968 with the release of the hit album "Switched-On Bach" performed entirely on a Moog modular synthesizer by Walter Carlos (who, with a few surgical nips and tucks, subsequently became Wendy Carlos).
The 1970's expanded electronic music's profile with the break through of bands like Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream, and especially the 1980's when it found more mainstream acceptance.
The Mid 1900's: Musique Concrete
In its development through the 1900's, electronic music was not solely confined to electronic circuitry being manipulated to produce sound. Back in the 1940's, a relatively new German invention - the reel-to-reel tape recorder developed in the 1930's - became the subject of interest to a number of Avante Garde European composers, most notably the French radio broadcaster and composer Pierre Schaeffer (1910-1995) who developed a montage technique he called Musique Concrete.
Musique Concrete (meaning 'real world' existing sounds as opposed to artificial or acoustic ones produced by musical instruments) broadly involved the splicing together of recorded segments of tape containing 'found' sounds - natural, environmental, industrial and human - and manipulating these with effects such as delay, reverb, distortion, speeding up or slowing down of tape-speed (varispeed), reversing, etc.
Stockhausen actually held concerts utilizing his Musique Concrete works as backing tapes (by this stage electronic as well as 'real world' sounds were used on the recordings) on top of which live instruments would be performed by classical players responding to the mood and motifs they were hearing!
Musique Concrete had a wide impact not only on Avante Garde and effects libraries, but also on the contemporary music of the 1960's and 1970's. Important works to check are the Beatles' use of this method in ground-breaking tracks like 'Tomorrow Never Knows', 'Revolution No. 9' and 'Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite', as well as Pink Floyd albums "Umma Gumma", "Dark Side of the Moon" and Frank Zappa's "Lumpy Gravy". All used tape cut-ups and home-made tape loops often fed live into the main mixdown.
Today this can be performed with simplicity using digital sampling, but yesterday's heroes labored hours, days and even weeks to perhaps complete a four minute piece! For those of us who are contemporary musicians, understanding the history of electronic music helps in appreciating the quantum leap technology has taken in the recent period. But these early innovators, these pioneers - of which there are many more down the line - and the important figures they influenced that came before us, created the revolutionary groundwork that has become our electronic musical heritage today and for this I pay them homage!
1950's: The First Computer and Synth Play Music
Moving forward a few years to 1957 and enter the first computer into the electronic mix. As you can imagine, it wasn't exactly a portable laptop device but consumed a whole room and user friendly wasn't even a concept. Nonetheless creative people kept pushing the boundaries. One of these was Max Mathews (1926 -) from Bell Telephone Laboratories, New Jersey, who developed Music 1, the original music program for computers upon which all subsequent digital synthesis has its roots based. Mathews, dubbed the 'Father of Computer Music', using a digital IBM Mainframe, was the first to synthesize music on a computer.
In the climax of Stanley Kubrik's 1968 movie '2001: A Space Odyssey', use is made of a 1961 Mathews' electronic rendition of the late 1800's song 'Daisy Bell'. Here the musical accompaniment is performed by his programmed mainframe together with a computer-synthesized human 'singing' voice technique pioneered in the early 60's. In the movie, as HAL the computer regresses, 'he' reverts to this song, an homage to 'his' own origins.
1957 also witnessed the first advanced synth, the RCA Mk II Sound Synthesizer (an improvement on the 1955 original). It also featured an electronic sequencer to program music performance playback. This massive RCA Synth was installed, and still remains, at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, New York, where the legendary Robert Moog worked for a while. Universities and Tech laboratories were the main home for synth and computer music experimentation in that early era.
1960's: The Dawning of The Age of Moog
The logistics and complexity of composing and even having access to what were, until then, musician unfriendly synthesizers, led to a demand for more portable playable instruments. One of the first to respond, and definitely the most successful, was Robert Moog (1934-2005). His playable synth employed the familiar piano style keyboard.
Moog's bulky telephone-operators' cable plug-in type of modular synth was not one to be transported and set up with any amount of ease or speed! But it received an enormous boost in popularity with the success of Walter Carlos, as previously mentioned, in 1968. His LP (Long Player) best seller record "Switched-On Bach" was unprecedented because it was the first time an album appeared of fully synthesized music, as opposed to experimental sound pieces.
The album was a complex classical music performance with various multi-tracks and overdubs necessary, as the synthesizer was only monophonic! Carlos also created the electronic score for "A Clockwork Orange", Stanley Kubrik's disturbing 1972 futuristic film.
From this point, the Moog synth is prevalent on a number of late 1960's contemporary albums. In 1967 the Monkees' "Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd" became the first commercial pop album release to feature the modular Moog. In fact, singer/drummer Mickey Dolenz purchased one of the very first units sold.
It wasn't until the early 1970's, however, when the first Minimoog appeared that interest seriously developed amongst musicians. This portable little unit with a fat sound had a significant impact becoming part of live music kit for many touring musicians for years to come. Other companies such as Sequential Circuits, Roland and Korg began producing their own synths, giving birth to a music subculture.
I cannot close the chapter on the 1960's, however, without reference to the Mellotron. This electronic-mechanical instrument is often viewed as the primitive precursor to the modern digital sampler.
Developed in early 1960's Britain and based on the Chamberlin (a cumbersome US-designed instrument from the previous decade), the Mellotron keyboard triggered pre-recorded tapes, each key corresponding to the equivalent note and pitch of the pre-loaded acoustic instrument.
The Mellotron is legendary for its use on the Beatles' 1966 song 'Strawberry Fields Forever'. A flute tape-bank is used on the haunting introduction played by Paul McCartney.
The instrument's popularity burgeoned and was used on many recordings of the era such as the immensely successful Moody Blues epic 'Nights in White Satin'. The 1970's saw it adopted more and more by progressive rock bands. Electronic pioneers Tangerine Dream featured it on their early albums.
With time and further advances in microchip technology though, this charming instrument became a relic of its period.
1970's: The Birth of Vintage Electronic Bands
The early fluid albums of Tangerine Dream such as "Phaedra" from 1974 and Brian Eno's work with his self-coined 'ambient music' and on David Bowie's "Heroes" album, further drew interest in the synthesizer from both musicians and audience.
Kraftwerk, whose 1974 seminal album "Autobahn" achieved international commercial success, took the medium even further adding precision, pulsating electronic beats and rhythms and sublime synth melodies. Their minimalism suggested a cold, industrial and computerized-urban world. They often utilized vocoders and speech synthesis devices such as the gorgeously robotic 'Speak and Spell' voice emulator, the latter being a children's learning aid!
While inspired by the experimental electronic works of Stockhausen, as artists, Kraftwerk were the first to successfully combine all the elements of electronically generated music and noise and produce an easily recognizable song format. The addition of vocals in many of their songs, both in their native German tongue and English, helped earn them universal acclaim becoming one of the most influential contemporary music pioneers and performers of the past half-century.
Kraftwerk's 1978 gem 'Das Modell' hit the UK number one spot with a reissued English language version, 'The Model', in February 1982, making it one of the earliest Electro chart toppers!
Ironically, though, it took a movement that had no association with EM (Electronic Music) to facilitate its broader mainstream acceptance. The mid 1970's punk movement, primarily in Britain, brought with it a unique new attitude: one that gave priority to self-expression rather than performance dexterity and formal training, as embodied by contemporary progressive rock musicians. The initial aggression of metallic punk transformed into a less abrasive form during the late 1970's: New Wave. This, mixed with the comparative affordability of many small, easy to use synthesizers, led to the commercial synth explosion of the early 1980's.
A new generation of young people began to explore the potential of these instruments and began to create soundscapes challenging the prevailing perspective of contemporary music. This didn't arrive without battle scars though. The music industry establishment, especially in its media, often derided this new form of expression and presentation and was anxious to consign it to the dustbin of history.
1980's: The First Golden Era of Electronic Music for the Masses
Gary Numan became arguably the first commercial synth megastar with the 1979 "Tubeway Army" hit 'Are Friends Electric?'. The Sci-Fi element is not too far away once again. Some of the imagery is drawn from the Science Fiction classic, "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?". The 1982 hit film "Blade Runner" was also based on the same book.
Although 'Are Friends Electric?' featured conventional drum and bass backing, its dominant use of Polymoogs gives the song its very distinctive sound. The recording was the first synth-based release to achieve number one chart status in the UK during the post-punk years and helped usher in a new genre. No longer was electronic and/or synthesizer music consigned to the mainstream sidelines. Exciting!
Further developments in affordable electronic technology placed electronic squarely in the hands of young creators and began to transform professional studios.
Designed in Australia in 1978, the Fairlight Sampler CMI became the first commercially available polyphonic digital sampling instrument but its prohibitive cost saw it solely in use by the likes of Trevor Horn, Stevie Wonder and Peter Gabriel. By mid-decade, however, smaller, cheaper instruments entered the market such as the ubiquitous Akai and Emulator Samplers often used by musicians live to replicate their studio-recorded sounds. The Sampler revolutionized the production of music from this point on.
In most major markets, with the qualified exception of the US, the early 1980's was commercially drawn to electro-influenced artists. This was an exciting era for many of us, myself included. I know I wasn't alone in closeting the distorted guitar and amps and immersing myself into a new universe of musical expression - a sound world of the abstract and non traditional.
At home, Australian synth based bands Real Life ('Send Me An Angel', "Heartland" album), Icehouse ('Hey Little Girl') and Pseudo Echo ('Funky Town') began to chart internationally, and more experimental electronic outfits like Severed Heads and SPK also developed cult followings overseas.
But by mid-decade the first global electronic wave lost its momentum amidst resistance fomented by an unrelenting old school music media. Most of the artists that began the decade as predominantly electro-based either disintegrated or heavily hybrid their sound with traditional rock instrumentation.
The USA, the largest world market in every sense, remained in the conservative music wings for much of the 1980's. Although synth-based records did hit the American charts, the first being Human League's 1982 US chart topper 'Don't You Want Me Baby?', on the whole it was to be a few more years before the American mainstream embraced electronic music, at which point it consolidated itself as a dominant genre for musicians and audiences alike, worldwide.
1988 was somewhat of a watershed year for electronic music in the US. Often maligned in the press in their early years, it was Depeche Mode that unintentionally - and mostly unaware - spearheaded this new assault. From cult status in America for much of the decade, their new high-play rotation on what was now termed Modern Rock radio resulted in mega stadium performances. An Electro act playing sold out arenas was not common fare in the USA at that time!
In 1990, fan pandemonium in New York to greet the members at a central record shop made TV news, and their "Violator" album outselling Madonna and Prince in the same year made them a US household name. Electronic music was here to stay, without a doubt!
1990's Onward: The Second Golden Era of Electronic Music for the Masses
Before our 'star music' secured its hold on the US mainstream, and while it was losing commercial ground elsewhere throughout much of the mid 1980's, Detroit and Chicago became unassuming laboratories for an explosion of Electronic Music which would see out much of the 1990's and onwards. Enter Techno and House.
Detroit in the 1980's, a post-Fordism US industrial wasteland, produced the harder European influenced Techno. In the early to mid 80's, Detroiter Juan Atkins, an obsessive Kraftwerk fan, together with Derrick May and Kevin Saunderson - using primitive, often borrowed equipment - formed the backbone of what would become, together with House, the predominant music club-culture throughout the world. Heavily referenced artists that informed early Techno development were European pioneers such as the aforementioned Kraftwerk, as well as Yello and British Electro acts the likes of Depeche Mode, Human League, Heaven 17, New Order and Cabaret Voltaire.
Chicago, a four-hour drive away, simultaneously saw the development of House. The name is generally considered to be derived from "The Warehouse" where various DJ-Producers featured this new music amalgam. House has its roots in 1970's disco and, unlike Techno, usually has some form of vocal. I think Giorgio Moroder's work in the mid 70's with Donna Summer, especially the song 'I Feel Love', is pivotal in appreciating the 70's disco influences upon burgeoning Chicago House.
A myriad of variants and sub genres have developed since - crossing the Atlantic, reworked and back again - but in many ways the popular success of these two core forms revitalized the entire Electronic landscape and its associated social culture. Techno and House helped to profoundly challenge mainstream and Alternative Rock as the preferred listening choice for a new generation: a generation who has grown up with electronic music and accepts it as a given. For them, it is music that has always been.
The history of electronic music continues to be written as technology advances and people's expectations of where music can go continues to push it forward, increasing its vocabulary and lexicon.
Alien Skin is one modern proponent of electronic music and if you are keen to explore the development of this art form and how it has successfully splintered into different genres, in this case atmospheric, eerie & cinematic dark pop, download the latest couple of Alien Skin singles for free. You may do so by going to http://www.alienskinmusic.net/free
How to Protect Your Electronics From Heat
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In our modern society, we have become very dependent upon our electronic gadgets and appliances. Most households (in the U.S) have Personal Computers with an Internet Connection. If we solely looked at the Personal Computer, we do a lot of thing with this product.
- We communicate with our friends, family members and business associates.
- We conduct financial transactions (e.g., buy or sell products on line)
- We create all kinds of documents (which are very important to our personal and business finances/operations)
- We store and play music (in the form of *.mp3 files)
- We (increasingly) store pictures that have sentimental value (and could be tough to replace if lost).
For many people, anytime their "computer dies", it becomes a major inconvenience in their lives. If you were to look at some other electronic systems that we typically have in our homes, such as
- DVD Players
- Gaming Systems (e.g., Playstation, X-Box, Nintendo, Wii, etc.)
- Audio Entertainment Equipment
- Video Recording Equipment (for you people that like to post videos on YouTube.
- Appliances (such as Central Air Conditioning Systems, Heat Pumps, Microwave Ovens, etc.)
- HDTVs (e.g., LCD or Plasma)
All of these items entertain us, enlighten us and provide us with comfort. These products each require a considerable amount of money to purchase. Further, repairing and/or replacing these products is also quite expensive. Hence, I am quite amazed that people do not do more to protect their investment (in these electronic systems) and do whatever they can to extend the operating life time of these products.
In general, there are three (3) different destructive mechanisms that will either destroy or greatly reduce the operational life-time of your electronics. These three destructive mechanisms are
- Heat
- Electrical Surge/Spike Events, and
- Electrical Noise
In this article, we are going to talk about HEAT. As we discuss Heat, we will cover the following topics.
- How is Heat destructive to your electronics?
- What can we do about heat - How to Protect Your Electronics from Heat and Extend the Operating Life of our Electronics?
2.0 HOW IS HEAT DESTRUCTIVE TO YOUR ELECTRONICS
Heat is an artifact of electronics. All electronic systems generate heat. Electronic systems accept electrical power (current and voltage) from the power line (via the electrical outlet). The electronic system uses a portion of this electrical power to perform work (e.g., the function that you want it to perform, e.g., play a DVD, cook a bag of popcorn, etc). The remaining portion of this electrical power is converted into heat.
However, heat is also an enemy of electronic systems. Few things are more effective in reducing the operating life-time of an electronic system, than raising the operating temperature of the electronic circuitry within your electronic system. If you were to speak with an Electronics Device Reliability expert, he/she would tell you that for every 10 degrees (Celsius) that you raise the operating temperature of an electrical device; you reduce the operating lifetime of that device by 50%. The impact of heat (in shortening the operating life) of your electronics is "huge".
3.0 WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT HEAT?
As I mentioned earlier, all electronics generates heat. There is no way to prevent electronics from generating the very thing that can destroy it. However, there are a couple of things that you can do to prevent this heat from doing so much damage.
1. You can work to remove this heat from the electronics (as quickly as it generates it), or
2. You can do things to try to help the electronics to not generate so much heat in the first place.
I will address each of these approaches below.
3.1. REMOVING HEAT FROM THE ELECTRONICS
Many consumer electronic systems were designed with "Heat Removal" in mind. Some of these electronic systems (like desktop computers) contain "internal fans". These fans were designed into these systems so that they could blow air through the area in which the system electronics resides. The intent behind having these fans to is blow the heat away from these electronics and to help keep them cool.
Other electronic systems contain "vents" (in their outer case) to provide an "escape path" for heat. Many of these vents are located at the top or in the "back-end" of the electrical system. On this basis, I have the following recommendations to permit the removal of heat from your electronics.
Make sure and keep papers, books, dust and other items from "blocking" the vents of these systems.
Leaving these items on top of your (DVD Player for example) will block the vents, and will not allow for heat to escape from your DVD Player. This will cause the temperature (surrounding the electronics) within your DVD player to rise; which will (in-turn) reduce the operating lifetime of your DVD player.
Make sure that the "back-end" of the electronic system is not "butt-up" against the wall or an entertainment cabinet.
It is important to make sure that there is sufficient air/ventilation space between the vents (in the back end) and the wall/cabinet to allow for Heat Removal.
Make sure and have your appliances (like your Central Air Conditioning system or Heat Pump) serviced.
Whenever these appliances are serviced, the service professional will do various things (like clean out dust and debris from ventilation path), therefore maintaining an unobstructed path for heat to escape from these systems.
Make sure that the fan (inside some of your systems) is working.
If this fan stops working, then you need to get it repaired quickly. Failure to do this will result in your electronic system having an early meeting with the "grim reaper" or an electronic waste disposal site.
3.2 REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF HEAT THAT THE ELECTRONICS GENERATE IN THE FIRST PLACE
Another approach to protecting your electronics from heat is to take steps to try to prevent your electronics from generating excessive heat in the first place. The amount of heat that is generated within an electronic system is often referred to as being related to the following expression for resistive loss: I^2XR, where:
- I represents the amount of current flowing through an electronic system and
- R represents the load impedance (or resistance) within this electronic system; and
- I^2 denotes " I being raised to the 2nd Power, or "I-squared"
From this mathematical expression, you can see that if we were able to reduce the amount of current flowing through an electrical system, this would certainly help to reduce the amount of heat generated within this electrical system.
QUESTION: How can you reduce the current that an electrical system uses? Doesn't it require a certain amount of current to do its job? The answer to this question is "Yes", an electrical system does require a certain amount of current and voltage (electrical power) to do its job. However, it doesn't need to use anymore current than that. Hence, we recommend that you use TVSS (Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors) components in order to reduce the current level (flowing into your electrical system).
Now, I know that some of you may be "scratching your heads" and wondering, "How in the world will this reduce the amount of current flowing into my electronic system" and (in turn reduce the amount of heat that it generates)? The answer is this: Anytime there is a large amount of electrical noise or spikes, or other forms of distortion in the electrical voltage and current in the power line, this also results in the flow of additional current into your electrical system. By using the TVSS components, you are eliminating this excessive current (due to noise, glitches, etc.) from the "power line" current, flowing into your electronic system.
In this case, you have now accomplished the following:
1. You have decreased the amount of current flowing into your electronic system, (which is the "I" in the expression "I^2 X R") - which helps a lot to reduce the amount of heat that the system generates.
2. By reducing the heat that the electrical system generates, you are now lowering the ambient (or surrounding) temperature in which your electronics operates.
3. Lowering the ambient temperature will often times also reduce the load impedance/resistance in your electronic system (e.g., the "R" in this expression) as well.
QUESTION: How can you reduce the load impedance/resistance in an electronic system? Isn't that a design feature of the electronic system? The answer to this question is "Yes it is". You cannot change the load impedance/resistance by very much. But, the reason why lowering the ambient temperature will also reduce the load impedance/resistance is that many resistors have (what is called) a positive temperature coefficient. This means that as the ambient temperature goes up, does the resistor value of this particular resistor.
However, the converse is also true. If you were to lower the ambient (or surrounding) temperature, then you would also lower the resistor value as well.
SO LET'S RECAP THE BENEFITS OF USING TVSS COMPONENTS:
- Using TVSS components lower the amount of current flowing through your electronic system.
- Lowering this current reduces the amount of heat that the electronic system generates.
- This lowers the ambient temperature for the system electronics.
- Lowering the ambient temperature also lowers the load impedance/resistance (R) within the electronic system.
Both the reduction of current (and the resulting reduction of the load impedance) would serve to significantly reduce the amount of heat that the electronics system will generates.
4.0 OTHER ARTICLES IN THIS SERIES
Other articles in this series are listed below.
- How to Protect Your Electronics from Electrical Surge/Spike Events
- How to Protect Your Electronics from Electrical Noise
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
In this article, we spoke about "heat" and how effective it is in reducing the operating life-time of your electronics. Heat is one of the three (3) destructive mechanisms that will either destroy or shorten the operational life-time of your electronics. The remaining two mechanisms are
- Electrical Surge/Spike Events, and
- Electrical Noise
We have also described some guidelines on how to protect your electronics from heat, and to extend the operating life-time of your electronics. In particular, we mentioned the following approaches:
1. Use (and do not thwart) the "Heat Removal" features of your electronic systems
- Make sure that Internal Fans are working and
- Make sure that vents are not blocks and that there is plenty of air space around the Electronic system to allow for the escape of heat.
2. Use TVSS (Transient Voltage Surge Suppressor) components to regulate the amount of voltage (and in turn) current that is flowing into your electronic systems: Minimizes heat generation due to resistive loss.
Do you wish to learn more about approaches to protect your electronics from the affects of heat, electrical surge events and electrical noise?
Click here to learn more about an approach to protect your electronics from all three of these destructive mechanisms and extend the operating life of your electronics.
Darrell E. Smith has more than 25 years of experience as an Electrical Engineer. He is also an experienced Article Marketer and a Distributor for a Company that Manufacturer's "Healthy Living/Green Technology Products".
Chemical Reactions And Energy, Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds, Acids, Bases, Salts
Modern chemistry attempts to produce new materials which through their various characteristics and properties can be better used for all types of purposes. One prerequisite of choosing the necessary chemical reactions necessary to synthesise some new product is a detailed knowledge of the structure of the reactants and their characteristic properties, including some knowledge of the course of the chemical reactions and the mechanisms which make them go and influence them.
A chemical reaction is a change in molecules and elements which results in new molecules with new properties being formed. The course of a reaction is described by a chemical equation. The materials which react together are called reactants; the materials which are formed in a reaction are called products. A reaction equation, or a chemical equation, is used to abbreviate and symbolise a chemical reaction. The reactants, the materials which begin a chemical reaction, are written on the left side of a chemical equation, in front of an arrow, and the products are written on the right side of this arrow:
Fe(s) + S(s) ® FeS(s)
Iron (in the carbon group) and sulphur (same group) react to produce iron sulphide.
In many reactions, the state of matter of the materials changes. For this reason, whether the material, either reactant or product, is in the solid (s), liquid (l), or gaseous (g) state is indicated with the corresponding lower case letter, in parentheses as above. If a reaction results in the amount of products being less than reactants, we call this a combination, or synthesis reaction. If there are more products than reactants, this is a dissociation, or breakdown reaction.
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Elements try to attain a state which is the most natural or most energetically advantageous for them, that is, one where the outermost electron shells are filled. For this reason, electrons are very often transferred between atoms, either donated or accepted. Some elements donate their electrons more easily, while some elements accept electrons more readily. In extreme cases, the electrons of one atom are completely transferred to an atom of another or the same element. But most of the time, electrons are not completely transferred, but rather shared between two atoms, though those electrons may be attracted to one of the atoms more strongly than the other. This is a chemical bond.
The most ideal state for atoms and molecules is always that state with the lowest energy. In most chemical reactions, then, the energy that was included in higher-energy bonds is released to the surroundings. But in order for such an energy-releasing reaction to occur, the reactants must be infused with enough energy to break the original bonds and allow the formation of new ones. Most of the time, a certain amount of energy has to be added to the system (usually in the form of heat), to start the reaction, or to make it go. This energy is called the activation energy of a reaction.
In order for new compounds to be formed, the bonds of the reactants must first be broken. An activation energy must be introduced into the system. This helps in the formation of new bonds which are more energetically favourable for the atoms and molecules involved in the reaction. If a reaction evolves more energy than was necessary to begin it (activation energy), this reaction proceeds on its own, resulting in the release of some energy to the surroundings.
This is an exothermic reaction. If, however, the energy released in forming new compounds is less than its activation energy, energy must be constantly added as the reaction proceeds. This type of reaction does not proceed on its own. It is an endothermic reaction.
The energy released can be in the form of heat, but it can be light or electricity, too. The variety of energetic phenomena released by chemical reactions is called heat of reaction.
Every chemical reaction goes at its own pace (reaction rate). Influencing this rate is very important in chemistry. The concentration of individual reactants and products can be determined, as can changes in heat and temperature. In gaseous state of matter reactions, reaction rate can be influenced by pressure, with higher pressures resulting in more rapid reactions. Reaction rate increases as the concentration of reactants increases, too. Greater temperature also causes reaction rate to rise. A rise of 10 Kelvin (= 10° C) causes reaction rate to double.
Reaction rate is also markedly influenced by the size of the surface on which reactants are allowed to react. In other words, if reactants are divided into smaller particles, a reaction proceeds more quickly than if reactants are left in bulk. Formation of Ions
In many compounds, atoms form what is called an ionic bond. In this type of bonding, electrons in one atom's outer shell are transferred from that atom to another, which accepts them. This is a complete transfer. The atom which accepts the electron or electrons completely fills its outer shell, thus attaining a noble gas electron configuration. The donor atom, the one which gives up its electrons, also attains a noble gas electron configuration (at a lower energy level) by emptying its most outer shell.
The transfer of negatively charged electrons leads to an excess of positively charged protons in the donor atom, thus forming an ion which is overall charged positively (cation). The second atom, the one which accepts the electron or electrons, becomes a negatively charged ion (anion). An ionic bond is based on the electrostatic attraction of two ions of opposite charges.
Salts make up a great percentage of the compounds which form ionic bonds. They are composed of atoms or molecules with a positive charge (cations) and the second half of an acid, which is a negatively charged anion. The reaction mechanism begins when an atom (or atoms) of hydrogen escape the acid, forming a positive ion. This positively charged hydrogen atom is replaced with another cation (or cations).
For example: HCl (hydrochloric acid) + NaOH (sodium hydroxide) = NaCl (table salt)+ H2O (water)
The valence of a salt is given by the number of hydrogen ions which are able to be transferred in a given reaction.
In the above reaction, just one hydrogen ion is replaced by one sodium ion, forming sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl). For this reason, table salt has one valence. Salts are soluble (able to dissolve) in water, and they have high melting and boiling points. Salts, when they are found in the solid state of matter, are crystalline in form.
Ionic compounds are usually spatially repeating molecules. In other words, they form crystals. Crystals can grow out of, or crystallise from, a saturated solution (from a solution which has exceeded its maximum solubility, where there is more salt than can be dissolved). Or, crystals can be grown from the transformation of an amorphic material (from a material without a regular crystalline structure).
What is the difference between a crystal and an amorphous material? Amorphous materials are not repeating, fixed, regular structures. On the other hand, crystalline structures have completely determined inner arrangements - their crystal lattice.
Every crystal has specific angles which together form the sides of that crystal. These repeat in a formation, with proportions which are highly specific.
Other types of bonds can be integrated into a crystal lattice, as its constituent parts. Crystals can be of various shapes and sizes. These varying crystalline structures, with their different forms and sizes, are what differentiates atoms, molecules and ions. It all depends on the exact geometric arrangement of a crystal, with its defined borders and in some cases sharp angles. The ideal crystal lattice is a thing of beauty, in which all of the points of the lattice are perfectly arranged in their natural places. In reality, however, such perfect crystals are quite rare. Most of the time, crystals which occur in nature are imperfect. Some points on the crystal lattice contain components which do not belong. Sometimes, the lattice is quite flawed.
The growth of a crystal or crystals is dependent on external factors, such as temperature, the natural speed of crystal growth, solution concentration, the amount of crystallising material and the presence, if any, of foreign material in the solution.
Crystals can be described with the help of two terms:
Proportion of Crystal and Type of Crystal
Agglomerates which appear from various materials can combine to form a complex, varied, imperfect crystalline structure.
Crystals can also be differentiated according to their crystal lattice. According to this criterion, there are simple crystals, in which individual points of the crystal lattice are occupied by parts of the same kind. The growth of a crystal can be imagined as a kind of regular swelling, on all sides, at its walls and edges. Besides those, there are complex crystals which are composed of multiple simple crystals.
Crystals can be investigated by structural analysis procedures. There are 7 basic types of crystal lattices and 7 other derivatives of these. All together, around 1000 crystalline structures are presently known.
Polymorphic crystals can appear in various forms. Materials which are formed from crystals can actually change their crystal lattice depending on temperature. Graphite (a component of pencil leads) and diamond are both modifications of the crystalline structure of the carbon atom ( C ). The differing characteristics come from differing attractions and forces between the various atoms.
An allotrope (allos from the Greek - different, trope - change) is a compound which is able to take on various forms.
Monotropes are those crystals that can be arranged in various ways, but only one of these is stable. The other forms, when they are present, tend to transform into this most stable form. Since temperature differences are not relevant to this situation, these transformations may not be considered as temperature based. While allotropic materials can be found in a variety of forms, monotropes, on the other hand, will sooner or later transform to one, most stable form.
Enantiotropes are those crystals which have the ability to change their crystal lattices as a function of temperature. As temperature rises or falls, these crystals change their crystalline arrangements. One lattice exists above a certain temperature, with another in place below that critical temperature. Most of the time, these critical temperatures are very high. Of interest are a number of forms of iron which are assumed during production.
Isomorphs are those substances which share the same crystalline structure, although they are completely different compounds.
One of the simplest crystalline structures is the one which characterises table salt (NaCl). Its structure is that of a cube which has at its corners ions of chlorine. Sodium ions are at the centres of the sides and in the centre of the cube.
Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds
Bonds between atoms or in some cases molecules can be different. Paired, covalent bonds are found in non-metallic molecules. The atoms in the molecules of basic gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are all joined together with covalent bonds. These types of bonds have atoms connected with the help of the electrons in the outermost shell. The result is the union of two electrons to form an electron pair. Negatively charged, bonded electrons are attracted to the positively charged nuclei of both atoms. Because both of the nuclei must now share the electrons, they stick together, joined by the union of their electrons, an electron pair.
Each of the two atoms, then, seemingly has one or more electron extra. The bond between the atoms is based on the attraction of the two nuclei of the atoms to the shared electron pair. The shared electrons belong to both atoms at the same time. All atoms, in whatever state they are found, have the tendency to want to fill their outer electron shells. In the hydrogen molecule (H2), each hydrogen atom has two electrons associated with it, in its one and only outermost shell. (An isolated hydrogen atom has only one electron.) When, however, two hydrogens are bonded together, they achieve the electron configuration of the second element, helium (He).
Covalent bonds are very stable, because the atoms involved in a covalently bonded compound fill their outermost shells completely, bringing the atoms to their most energetically desirable state. This type of electron arrangement is equivalent to that of a noble gas, because all of the noble gases have a stable electron configuration (filled outermost electron shell). Also, molecules of chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen can reach the stable electron configuration in their outermost shell - by bonding with another atom of their own kind. That is, two chlorines bonded together, two oxygens, two nitrogens.
In order to reach the noble gas electron configuration, it is often necessary to fill various spaces in the outermost electron shell. In this case, multiple electron pairs are needed to fill these "holes". In the oxygen molecule, two electron pairs are needed, with the nitrogen molecule three. This is necessary because all atoms taking part in these types of bonding reactions need either 2 electrons in their outermost shell (elements in the first energy level, or period, of the periodic table: H and He) or 8 (other groups of the periodic table which are at the right end). These atoms which have incomplete outermost electron shells must attract other electrons, from other atoms, to fill their shells completely. An atom like oxygen can join with two atoms, forming an electron pair with each of them, or it may join with one other atom to form two electron pairs with the one atom, called a double bond. There are also triple bonds. Carbon (C) is capable of forming single, double and triple bonds.
In a covalent bond, a shared electron pair in a molecule is attracted to both nuclei on both sides equally strongly, but only if the two atoms sharing that pair are the same. Attractive force depends on the charge of the atomic nucleus and on the amount of electrons in the atom's electron cloud. The ability to attract electrons by an element was called electronegativity (EN) by L. Pauling (American chemist).
The quantity electronegativity is defined as the comparative ability of an atom to be attracted to an individual atomic nucleus. In other words, the flourine atom attracts bonded electrons most strongly of all atoms. It was therefore assigned the highest electronegativity of all elements - 4.0. Electronegativity values of all the elements can be found in the periodic table. In every period, every horizontal row of the periodic table, electronegativity rises from left to right across the period, with rising number of protons, or atomic number. On the other hand, in the main groups, as we move down the periodic table from top to bottom, or vertically, electronegativity decreases. So, the element with the largest value of electronegativity must logically be found in the top right of the period table. Besides the noble gases, which have their outermost electron shells filled, and do not need electrons, the element which attracts electrons most readily is flourine (F), with a value of 4.0. At the other end of the periodic table, bottom left, are elements with the lowest electronegativity (Fr 0.7).
In compounds composed of two different atoms, an electron pair is not shared equally among the two. Instead, it is attracted to the two sides with different attractive force, based on the atoms' differing electronegativities. In the molecule hydrogen chloride (HCl), the hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom share one electron pair. But because of the greater size of the chlorine nucleus, this electron pair is more strongly attracted by the chlorine nucleus than by the hydrogen nucleus. In addition, the chlorine atom has another 6 electrons in its outermost shell. These are arranged into three electron pairs - all unbonded. For this reason, the chlorine atom has an overall negative charge to it, if only a partially negative charge. The hydrogen atom, on the other side, has the same value of partial positive charge. The molecule HCl, or hydrogen chloride, with its partial positive side (hydrogen) and its partial negative side (chlorine) is said to have a dipole, or dipole moment. This means that the one pair of shared electrons is not shared equally. In this case, the pair is closer to the chlorine atom. It is partially negatively charged because it now has more electrons than it has protons in its nucleus. Hydrogen, on the other side, has less electrons than it has protons, and is therefore positive. Bonded electrons are written as a dash, a short line between two element symbols, or between molecular chemical formulas. This type of designation is called a valence formula.
The electronegativity of an element is determined by the amount of protons it has in its nucleus, as well as the number of electrons it contains in its outermost shell. Thanks to the partial transfer of a bonded electron pair to the more electronegative atom in a molecule, that molecule can have a positive and negative side. These sides are called poles, and if they differ in a significant way, the molecule is said to have a dipole. The result is a molecule with one side positive, one side negative. This can, of course, affect neighbouring molecules, attracting or repelling them if they are partially charged. The water molecule has a partial negative charge, found on the oxygen atom. The two hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge.
Both free electron pairs in the oxygen atom attract the centre of a partially positively charged neighbouring molecule with their electromagnetic attractive force. This type of bonding is called hydrogen bonding. Each molecule of water hydrogen bonds with other water molecules, aligning so as to produce a positive, negative repeating pattern. The positive side is hydrogen, the negative oxygen. This phenomenon, hydrogen bonding in water, explains water's high surface tension. This means that the molecules on the surface are weakly bonded to the rest of the liquid, by these hydrogen bonds. For that reason, water, even at relatively high temperatures, is still a liquid, whereas other similar molecules have already changed to the gaseous state.
Bonds between atoms can be depicted in various ways:
H : H formula with points, or dots, indicating electrons
H - H or with hydrogen chloride H Cl valence formula
H2 HCl chemical formula of the molecule
Acids, Bases, Salts
Intermolecular Forces
Most inorganic compounds are categorised as either acids, bases or salts. S. Arrhenius (Swedish physical chemist) came up with one of the most often used definitions for an acid.
According to that definition, acids are materials which when dissolved in water release hydrogen cations (atoms of hydrogen with a positive charge). Bases, on the other hand, are materials which release hydroxide anions (negatively charged compounds of one atom oxygen, one atom hydrogen) into solution when dissolved.
Salts are made of atoms or molecules, with one side positively charged, the other negatively charged.
They are formed from an acid when that acid gives up its hydrogen atoms with their positive charges, only to replace the hydrogen with the ion from a metal.
A number of acids and bases were known long before their chemical makeups and reaction mechanisms were known. As pure substances they are not distinguishable from each other. So, acids have to be dissolved in water in order for chemists to determine their characteristic properties. Acids begin to react when placed in water. In an aqueous solution the ions of an acid separate from each other, into a hydrogen cation and the corresponding anion. Both of these ions, free in the water, interact with it. In essence, water molecules surround the ions, creating what is called hydrated ions. So, a hydrogen ion does not remain isolated, but undergoes a hydration reaction to produce a positively charged "water" molecule, in the reaction H2 O + H+ = H3O+. These ions cause a solution to be acidic in character, and cause the colour of an indicator to change, indicating an excess of H3O+
ions in solution. (An indicator is a substance which can differentiate whether an acid or base is present in a solution.) In addition, ions in solution cause a solution to conduct electricity, or be conductive.
When a base is dissolved in water, positive ions are released into solution, and so are negatively charged hydroxide ions. A solution which contains hydroxide ions is a basic solution, or an alkaline solution. Just like with acids, the ions released into solution are hydrated, or surrounded by water. These solutions also conduct an electric current. Basic solutions also affect the colour of an indicator, and can produce basic salts when reacted with acids. Bases are basically lattices of ions. Their solids can also conduct an electric current.
According to the Brönsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, any compound which releases a proton, or a hydrogen atom, into solution is an acid. Any compound which accepts a proton is considered a base. Solutions which contain dissolved bases and acids, because they release protons or hydroxide ions, conduct electricity.
The chemical process in which an electrical current runs through a solution is called an electrolysis. Bonds are broken in the process due to the electrolysis, with new substances being formed on the ends of the conductors, or electrodes.
Electrolysis reactions require the kinds of solutions which contain dissociated ions, allowing the solution to carry an electrical current.
During the electrolysis of an ionic solution, negatively charged ions (anions) migrate to the positively charged electrode (anode), while positively charged cations migrate to the negatively charged electrode, the cathode. In the case of an acidic or basic solution, positive ions migrate to the cathode (the end of the electrode with a negative pole), whereas the negative hydroxide ions swim to the anode (electrode with a positive pole). In these types of solutions (called electrolytic), there is no movement of electrons as in a crystal lattice, but rather movement of free swimming ions to the corresponding electrode. The number of ions is the determining factor as to whether, and how well, a solution conducts electricity.
The volume of hydrogen ions in a solution is measured as the value of the pH of a solution. The value of pH is the negative base ten logarithm giving the concentration of protons (hydrogen (H), measured from 0 to 14. A pH of O means that the concentration of hydrogen = 1, while a value of 14 means a concentration of 0.00000000000001. Solutions with a pH from 0-7 are acidic.
The acidic character of a solution decreases with rising pH. At a pH of 7, a solution is neutral. As pH rises from 7, so does the alkalinity of a solution. At a pH of 7, there are the same amount of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions.
Indicators are used in order to determine the acidic or basic character of a reaction. These substances have to have the property of changing their colour in the presence of an acidic or basic solution. For example, litmus paper changes its colour to blue in a basic solution. In a neutral solution, it is pink. In a basic solution, it is red. Colour changes differ from one indicator to another, but are characteristic for one specific indicator. With the right choice of an indicator, pH can be fairly accurately determined.
The degree with which an acid releases hydrogen ions into solution depends on the concentration of an acid. The stronger an acid, the more protons it releases into solution, and the more negative ions as well. Two well-known strong acids are sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Weak acids, on the other hand, do not release as many ions into solution. In other words, they do not dissociate as completely. Examples of weak acids include citric acid and acetic acid.
If we mix an acidic solution with an equally strong basic solution in the same proportions, the resulting solution will be neutral. This is called a neutralisation reaction. In a neutralisation reaction, hydrogen ions are neutralised by hydroxide ions - forming water - and a salt. Heat is also released during neutralisation reactions.
Many chemical reactions that seem not to be working or go at an extremely slow pace can be accelerated by addition of a small amount of some material. The material, called a catalyst, is added to the reactants. A reaction which requires a catalyst is said to be catalysed.
Catalysts take part in a reaction, but they are not used up by the reaction and are unchanged by the reaction. In the type of reaction which requires a catalyst, the reactants would react either too slowly or not at all. In other words, a catalyst gives the system a boost, an increase in activisation energy. The presence of a catalyst in a chemical reaction makes the reaction easier, or in some cases, possible at all: A catalyst takes part in a reaction by reacting with one of the original reactants to form a an intermediate product, which goes on to produce the required end product. One possibility is that one of the reactants, with the help of interaction with a catalyst, acquires new spatial dimensions or other characteristics which make it more reactive with another of the reactants. We differentiate between homogeneous catalysts, which are the same state of matter as the other reactants, and heterogeneous catalysts, where the catalyst is in a different state of matter.
This text was drawn from the Chemical Reactions and Energy, Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds, Acids, Bases, Salts page, where you will find explanatory outlinks.
Translation Resources
Translated by KENAX Translation Service.